The Cult of Saints in Late Antiquity

The fifth volume of the series Inscriptiones Christianae Urbis Romae offers 189 entries where the volume's editor, Antonio Ferrua, claimed to have published 640 graffiti, mainly on painted pieces of plaster from walls of the so-called Memoria Apostolorum in the cemetery ad Catacumbas, located at the third milestone on the Via Appia. Ferrua, estimated that there were at least 180 more, illegible, inscriptions at the site. Antonio Felle (2012, 479), however, points out that the exact number of the graffiti published by Ferrua is 509, and that Ferrua omitted 29 texts which had been edited earlier by Paul Styger. This gives a total of 538 published graffiti. A new edition of these texts is under preparation by Antonio Felle, and several of them were reprinted in 2008 by Carlo Carletti. The basic and most complete edition, which we use here, is, however, still that from the ICVR series, whilst the most detailed commentary is that by Antonio Felle (2012). The graffiti are now exhibited under the Church of San Sebastiano.

The pieces of plaster with the graffiti were found during the excavations conducted at the site by Paul Styger in the early 20th c., and first published by him in larger collections in 1915 and 1918. Styger’s work revealed an enclosure (the so-called Memoria) measuring about 23 m x 18 m, with a courtyard, and a trapezoidal room with benches set against its three walls. Based on the shape and layout of the benches Styger identified the room as a banquet hall, used for the commemoration of the dead buried in the subterranean cemetery over which the enclosure was constructed. He also dubbed the room triclia (after Latin triclinium = ‘dining room’). The graffiti were originally executed there probably on a narrow band of plaster sited about 1 m above the floor level and below c. 2.00-2.10 m (which is the height accessible to the human hand). Their density is estimated by Felle (2012, 483) as about 21 graffiti per 1 square metre.

The enclosure, including the triclia, was destroyed in the early 4th c., possibly during the persecutions under the Tetrarchs; but more likely it was demolished during the construction of the large Christian basilica built immediately over it. The basilica had a U or ‘circus’ shape, and was c. 75 m long. Its construction is usually ascribed to the emperor Constantine I. Paul Styger and Robert Marichal note that a firm terminus ante quem is indicated by tombstones in its pavement, the earliest of which date from the 340s (e.g. ICVR V, 13289.1). The building was dedicated to the Apostles, and by the early 5th c. was one of the major Christian sanctuaries of the city of Rome, as documented, for example by Socrates Scholasticus writing in Constantinople in the 430s-440s (E04012). The basilica was extensively used for burials of the Roman elite. More than 150 graves were recorded under its original unpaved floor. That layer was soon covered by the above-mentioned pavement with embedded carved epitaphs. These epitaphs are also collected and published in the fifth volume of the ICVR series.

Dating:
The graffiti date to the mid-3rd – early 4th c. Several arguments have been produced which allow us to establish this approximate time frame.

1) the archaeological context: The graffiti were found in the triclia. Therefore, they must postdate the construction of the enclosure which Styger described as later than nearby burials from c. 238-244, and later than three mausolea which were demolished specifically to make room for the new structure. The triclia must also be earlier than the construction of the 4th c. basilica. Hence, a time frame between 244 and 356 sounds reasonable.

2) the literary sources: the Depositio martyrum preserved in the Chronography of 354 records the following event dated 29 June 258: 'III kal. Iul. Petri in Catacumbas et Pauli Ostense, Tusco et Basso cons.'/'29 June. [Depositon?] of Peter in the Catacombs and Paul on [the Via] Ostiense, during the consulship of Tuscus and Bassus.' (seeE01052) The actual meaning of this record has been disputed. It is, however, possible that this calendar entry refers to the deposition of at least the body of the Apostle Peter in the cemetery ‘at the Catacombs’ on the Via Appia. As 258 falls within the persecutions of the emperor Valerian, it is not unlikely that Christians seeking to protect the body of Peter from desecration, or to gain easier access to it (as they were forbidden to enter Christian cemeteries), temporarily (?) stored the remains of Peter in the cemetery ‘at the Catacombs’. Whether the body was later left at the site or restored to its original tomb, is disputed.

Similar information is featured in the Martyrologium Hieronymianum, on 29 June, in the manuscript Bern 289, see E04866. There, however, both Peter and Paul are associated with the Cemetery 'ad Catacumbas'.

3) It has been suggested that one of the graffiti from the triclia, containing an invocation of the Apostle Paul, was partly covered by a dated graffito of a certain Celerinus. This later graffito was originally read by Styger (1918, no. 44 = ICVR, n.s., V, no. 12935) as follows: ...CELGRA... (?)|VVIVS AVG...|FARSVL...(?)|ET DONAT... Robert Marichal (1953, 64) suggested that it should be read: Celeri[nus] | V idus Aug[ustas] | Saccul[ari II] | et Donat[o II cos.]/'Celerinus, on the 5th day before the ides of August, under the consuls Saccularius for the second time and Donatus for the second time' (= 9 August 260). This would mean, argued Marichal, that at least some of the graffiti from the trilcia are earlier than 260, which would coincide well with the year 258 given by the Chronography of 354. Sadly, this interpretation was questioned by Margherita Guarducci already in 1955-1956, and having examined this piece of plaster Antonio Ferrura also decisively rejected Marichal’s reading, and concluded that the text (actually almost certainly not one graffito in four lines but three texts on behalf of three different people) cannot be used to date other graffiti from the site. Ferrua rejects the reading of the name Celerinus, and questions the occurrence of the names of the consuls, he only holds the reading of line 2 as containing the date: the 5th day before the ides of August of an unspecified year. In spite of Ferrua’s opinion, and although Marichal himself gave precedence to the two other arguments (the archaeological context, and the testimony of the Chronography of 354), Marichal’s reading of this graffito is still sometimes presented as the most important argument for dating the invocations from the triclia, for example, by David Eastman in his book on the rise of the cult of Paul in the West (2011, 73-74), cf. Lampe 2015, 285; Lapidge 2018, 91. [It has been suggested that graffito no. 12959 bears a reference to a consular dating formula, however, also in this case the reading is far from being clear. See the comments by Ferrua in the ICVR and further bibliography in Felle 2012, 478, note 5.]

Quality:
On the plaster we find both large and small, shallow and deep carvings. Some of them overlap others, so several ‘stratigraphic layers’ of graffiti can be discerned. This confirms the fact that the site was a popular religious destination over a long period. Some of the texts are in cursive script, while others are not. It is possible that they were carved by the staff of the sanctuary on behalf of the visitors.

Formulae:
A short study of the formulae used in these invocations is offered by Carlo Carletti (2008, 266-270), and a detailed one by Antonio Felle (2012, 490-497). The saints invoked are exclusively Peter and Paul (and the holy spirits, probably also of Peter and Paul), but the order of their names differs. Sometimes Peter is invoked first, sometimes it is Paul who takes the first place. In some cases the two saints are specifically termed the ‘Apostles’ (e.g. ICVR, n.s., V, no. 13065: [Πέτρον καὶ Π]αῦλον ἀποστό[λους]). We can also find separate invocations of either Peter or Paul. It has been suggest that Saint Quirinus of Siscia was invoked in no. 12959, but this was probably the result of an erroneous reading of the name of an ordinary supplicant. Ferrua prefers to read there the name Victorinus; see Felle 2012, 478, note 5.

Among the most popular formulae we find:

references to refrigerium/‘the commemorative banquet’, for example:
12942: refrigerav[it] | [F]elicissimus cum s[uis]/ ‘Felicissimus held a banquet with his family’
12981: Petro et Paulo | Tomius Coelius | refri`ger´<i>um feci/‘to Peter and Paul, I, Tomius Coelius, held a banquet’
13003: [---] at Paulu[m] | et Pet[rum] | refri[geravi - - -]/‘at Paul and Peter I held a banquet’

in mente habete, in orationibus vestris:
12912: [Petre et] Paul[e] | in m[ente] abete in | ora[tion]ibus vestris/‘O Peter and Paul, keep in your mind, in your prayers...’

petite:
12918: [Paul]e et Petre petite | [pro] nobis omnibus/‘O Paul and Peter, intercede for us all!’
12931: Petr[e] et Pau[l]e petite | pro [Le]ontium /‘O Peter and Paul, intercede for Leontius!’
12933: Pa[ul]e et Pet|re apetite pro Da|tivu in perpetu`u´m/‘O Paul and Peter, forever intercede for Dativus!’
12989: Paule ed Petre petite | pro Victore/‘O Paul and Peter, intercede for Victor!’

conservate:
12991: Petre et Paule cons[ervate - - -]/‘O Peter and Paul, save [- - -]!’
12996: sa[lva Paule et] | Petr[e - - - et] | Mart[yrium et] | conse[rvate in] | do[mino - - -]/‘Save, O Paul and Peter [- - -] and Martyrius, and save in the Lord [- - -]!’
13026: [- - - roga]mus | [conse]rvate nos [omnes]/‘[- - -] we ask, save us all!’
12946: [Petre et Pa]ulae spir[ita sancta vestra petant pro - - -]/‘O Peter and Paul, may your holy spirits intercede for [- - -]!’

promisit/votum fecit:
13091: [- - - i]dus m[- - -] | Eulogius votum f[ecit]/‘[- - -] on the [- - -] day of the ides of [- - -] Eulogius made a vow [ - - -].’

simple invocations:
12909: Petr[e et Paule]/‘O Peter and Paul!’

help to sinners:
12967: Petre et Paule sub|venite Prim[o] | peccatori/‘O Peter and Paul come to rescue Primus the sinner!’

Many invocations are formulated in Greek or in Latin using Greek letters:
12927: Παῦλε {μ} καί | μου πατ|ρός/‘O Paul, and (help) my father!’
12997: [Παυλ]ε ετ Πετ[ρε ιν μεν]/[τε ν]ος αβετε [ιν ορα]/[τι]ωνες βεστ[ρας]/‘O Paul and Peter, keep in mind, in your prayers...’
13045: [Πα]υ[λε ετ Πετρε] | [ι]ν με[ντε αβετε] | Αὐφίδ[ιον υἱόν - - -] | μου/‘O Paul and Peter, keep in mind Auphidios, my son!’
13069: Πέτρε Παίτρε μνημόνευαι | Τιμοκράτην καὶ Εὐ|τυχείαν κινα(?) καὶ | ἐσώρα(?) ++ [- - -]/‘O Peter, Peter, remember Timokrates and Eutychia, and (…) ++ [- - -]!’
13045: [κομμ]ανδαμ[ους? - - -]/‘We recommend [- - -].’
13049: Παῦλε καὶ Π[έτρε ἔχετε] / μνί[α]ς/‘O Paul and Peter, remember [- - -]!’
13055: [Παῦλε καὶ Πέτ]ρε εἰς μνε[ίαν] / [ἔχετε τὸν ᾿Ιρ]ίνες φίλι[ον]/‘O Paul and Peter, remember the beloved one of Irene.’
13070: Παυλε Πετρε | Χαλκηδονι ανιμα | βωβυς κομαν|[δ]ω Λαυrους/‘O Paul and Peter, I, Laurus (?), recommend you the soul of Chalkedonios!’
13071: <Π>α[ῦλ]ος καὶ | Π[έτρο]ς συν|τηρή[σα]τε θ(εο)ῦ δούλους | πνεύματα | ἅγεια συντη|ρήσαται ἡμᾶ|ς ἴνα πολλοῖς | ἔτεσε[ι ζῶμεν]/‘O Paul and Peter, support the servants of God! O holy spirits, support us so that we would live many years!’
13073: [Παυλε] ετ Πετρε | [ιν με]ντε [ν]ος αβε|[τοτε εἰς το]ὺς ἐῶ[νας]/O Paul and Peter, forever keep in mind...’

Supplicants:
The graffiti were scratched on behalf of a variety of supplicants. Among them we have men and women, people mentioning their children, and parents. It is almost certain that many of the prayers are on behalf of friends or family members who did not accompany the supplicant to the holy place. We rarely find mentions of professions in the text of these graffiti, and so we do not really know what was the social status of the supplicants. Some texts, however, suggest that the shrine was also visited by Christians from more distant locations. The very fragmentarily preserved no. 12911 records a priest (sacerdos), and mentions the toponyms Corsica and Sardinia. We also have references to ‘good sailing’, for example in no. 12959: deteriore rog(o) quot bene | navigent vi orationis/‘I humbly ask that they would sail well, through the power of the prayer;’ no. 12973: nabiga felix in deo/‘Sail happily in God!’ The term viator, a Latin equivalent of ‘pilgrim’ or ‘traveller’ occurs in no. 12963: adiu]vare domi[n - - -] viato[rem - - -]/‘Help lord [- - -] the pilgrim/traveller [ - - -]!’ The people visiting the shrine were certainly aware of its importance, and the fact that their prayers would be publicly displayed to other visitors. One of the invocations is also addressed to future readers: no. 12980: Pa`u´le Petre in mente | habete Sozomenum | et tu qui leges/‘O Paul and Peter, keep in mind Sozomenus, and you who are reading it (also pray for him)!’

A study of the onomastics is not very helpful in establishing the origin and identity of the visitors. Most of the names mentioned are Latin, and quite common. There is a group of names characteristic of Roman North Africa. On the other hand, some, if correctly read, seem to be so far otherwise unattested. Margherita Guarducci argued for the presence of a group of specifically Gallic names (cf. Felle 2012, 489-490). It is, however, possible that they were inhabitants of the cosmopolitan city of Rome rather than travellers from remote areas.

Burial site of a saint - crypt/ crypt with relics
Burial site of a saint - tomb/grave
Burial site of a saint - cemetery/catacomb
Cult building - unspecified

Feasting (eating, drinking, dancing, singing, bathing)

Prayer/supplication/invocation
Visiting graves and shrines
Pilgrimage

Ecclesiastics - lesser clergy
Women
Children
Other lay individuals/ people
Merchants and artisans
Foreigners (including Barbarians)

Bibliography

Images

Plan of the site. From: De Santis 2010, 50 (after Tolotti 1953 and Nieddu 2009).